Does Grass Fed Beef Have More Omega 3

A review of fat acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef

Cynthia A Daley

¹College of Agriculture, California Land University, Chico, CA, The states

Bister Abbott

¹College of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, USA

Patrick S Doyle

¹College of Agronomics, California Land University, Chico, CA, USA

Glenn A Nader

²University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, U.s.a.

Stephanie Larson

ⁱⁱUniversity of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, U.s.a.

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accustomed 2010 Mar ten.

Abstruse

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beefiness products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Enquiry spanning iii decades suggests that grass-based diets can significantly improve the fatty acid (FA) composition and antioxidant content of beef, albeit with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets take been shown to heighten full conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (C18:ii) isomers, trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) (C18:i t11), a precursor to CLA, and omega-3 (northward-iii) FAs on a grand/g fat basis. While the overall concentration of full SFAs is not different between feeding regimens, grass-finished beefiness tends toward a college proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such as myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies propose that grass-based diets elevate precursors for Vitamin A and East, as well as cancer fighting antioxidants such every bit glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activeness every bit compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fat conscious consumers will besides prefer the overall lower fatty content of a grass-fed beef production. Yet, consumers should be aware that the differences in FA content will also give grass-fed beefiness a distinct grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In addition, the fatty from grass-finished beef may have a yellowish appearance from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). Information technology is also noted that grain-fed beef consumers may accomplish similar intakes of both due north-3 and CLA through the consumption of college fatty grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fatty acrid profile in grass-fed beef

iii. Bear upon of grass-finishing on omega-three fat acids

iv. Impact of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA)

5. Impact of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

6. Bear on of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

vii. Touch of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activity

8. Affect of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

9. Conclusion

ten. References

Introduction

There is considerable support among the nutritional communities for the nutrition-center (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the primary cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [1]. Health professionals world-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fatty acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the need to increase intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fats [1,2]. Such wide sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fat consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing strong positive correlations betwixt intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a status believed to consequence from the concomitant rise in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol every bit SFA intake increases [iii,4]. For instance, it is mostly accepted that for every 1% increment in free energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increment by 1.iii to one.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/L) [5-7].

Wide promotion of this correlative data spurred an anti-SFA campaign that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including most animal proteins such as meat, dairy products and eggs over the final iii decades [8], indicted on their relatively high SFA and cholesterol content. However, more than recent lipid research would suggest that non all SFAs accept the aforementioned impact on serum cholesterol. For instance, lauric acrid (C12:0) and myristic acrid (C14:0), accept a greater full cholesterol raising effect than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral effect on the concentration of total serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases full serum cholesterol, although it besides decreases the ratio of full cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol [5,7,ix]. Thus, the individual fat acid profiles tend to exist more instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore be considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Conspicuously the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; not simply on the manner nosotros eat, but likewise on the way food is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in creature breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall bacteria beef product[ten]. Preliminary exam of diets containing today's leaner beef has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a iii ounce portion devoid of all external fat [eleven]. O'Dea'due south work was the first of several studies to prove today's bacteria beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing hazard of CVD [12-15].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers accept likewise altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, almost of the beefiness produced until the 1940'southward was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950's, considerable inquiry was washed to improve the efficiency of beefiness production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where high free energy grains are fed to cattle as means to decrease days on feed and amend marbling (intramuscular fat: Imf). In addition, U.Southward. consumers have grown accepted to the taste of grain-fed beef, generally preferring the flavour and overall palatability afforded by the college energy grain ration[xvi]. However, changes in consumer need, coupled with new inquiry on the event of feed on food content, accept a number of producers returning to the pastoral arroyo to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning 3 decades suggests that grass-simply diets can significantly alter the fatty acid composition and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently bachelor to substantiate an enhanced nutrient claim for grass-fed beefiness products as well as to discuss the effects these specific nutrients have on homo health.

Review of fatty acid profiles in grass-fed beefiness

Cerise meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is food dense and regarded equally an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B₆, B₁₂, D, East, and minerals, including iron, zinc and selenium [17,18]. Along with these important nutrients, meat consumers also ingest a number of fats which are an important source of energy and facilitate the assimilation of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, Due east and K. According to the ADA, animate being fats contribute approximately lx% of the SFA in the American diet, most of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acid has been shown to have no net bear upon on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,xix]. In addition, 30% of the FA content in conventionally produced beefiness is composed of oleic acid (C18:1) [20], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering effect among other healthful attributes including a reduced gamble of stroke and a significant subtract in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in susceptible populations [21].

Be that as information technology may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle tin can modify the lipid profile in such a way as to improve upon this nutritional package. Although there are genetic, historic period related and gender differences amidst the diverse meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the effect of animal diet is quite significant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, age, species or geographic location, direct contrasts betwixt grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acrid profile and antioxidant content found in the lipid depots and body tissues [22-24].

Table ane summarizes the saturated fatty acid assay for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This table is limited to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin eye), thereby standardizing the contrasts to similar cuts inside the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle betwixt 20 and 30 months of historic period. Unfortunately, non all studies report data in similar units of measure (i.e., one thousand/g of fatty acid), so directly comparisons between studies are not possible.

Table 1

Comparison of mean saturated fatty acrid composition (expressed as mg/thou of fatty acid or as a % of full lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acid

Author, publication year, breed, treatment	C12:0 lauric	C14:0 myristic	C16:0 palmitic	C18:0 stearic	C20:0 arachidic	Total SFA (units as specified)	Total lipid (units as specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	1000/100 g lipid
Grass	0.05	ane.24*	18.42*	17.54*	0.25*	38.76	9.76* mg/g musculus
Grain	0.06	1.84*	xx.79*	14.96*	0.nineteen*	39.27	13.03* mg/g muscle
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	one thousand/100 m lipid
Grass	0.05	ii.84*	26.9	17.0*	0.13*	48.viii*	2.8* % of muscle
Grain	0.07	3.45*	26.iii	13.two*	0.08*	45.1*	4.4* % of muscle
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus X-bred steers	% of total FA
Grass	na	2.19	23.i	13.1*	na	38.iv*	2.86* %International monetary fund
Grain	na	ii.44	22.1	x.8*	na	35.iii*	three.85* %Imf
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 thou muscle tissue
Grass	na	56.9*	508*	272.eight	na	900*	2.12%* % of muscle
Grain	na	103.seven*	899*	463.3	na	1568*	3.61%* % of muscle
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total intramuscular fat reported equally LSM
Grass	0.04	one.82	22.56*	17.64*	na	43.91	i.51* % of muscle
Grain	0.05	i.96	24.26*	16.80*	na	44.49	two.61* % of muscle
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers	% of total FA
Grass	na	two.ii	22.0	19.1	na	42.8	two.seven* %Imf
Grain	na	2.0	25.0	18.2	na	45.v	4.7* %IMF
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fatty acid within intramuscular fat
Grass	na	1.64*	21.61*	17.74*	na	49.08	1.68* % of musculus
Grain	na	ii.17*	24.26*	xv.77*	na	47.62	3.eighteen* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective study. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original study.

Table 1 reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in full fatty every bit compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, in that location is no consistent difference in full SFA content between these ii feeding regimens. Those SFA'southward considered to be more detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.e., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were college in grain-fed beef as compared to grass-fed contemporaries in 60% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acid (C18:0), the only saturated fatty acid with a net neutral impact on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beefiness tends to produce a more favorable SFA limerick although little is known of how grass-finished beefiness would ultimately bear upon serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beef.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has likewise become an important issue to consumers. Interestingly, beef's cholesterol content is like to other meats (beef 73; pork 79; lamb 85; craven 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 g) [32], and can therefore be used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[11,33]. Studies have shown that breed, nutrition and sex do non affect the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal muscle, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[34]. Every bit Imf levels rise, so goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fat [24-27,30], particularly with respect to marbling or International monetary fund [26,36], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the information is very express. Garcia et al (2008) report xl.three and 45.viii grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beef consistently produces college concentrations of MUFAs as compared to grass-fed beefiness, which include FAs such as oleic acid (C18:i cis-9), the primary MUFA in beefiness. A number of epidemiological studies comparing disease rates in unlike countries have suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and bloodshed rates to CVD [3,21]. Notwithstanding, grass-fed beefiness provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:i txi), an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA: C18:2 c-ix, t-11), a strong anti-carcinogen that is synthesized inside the trunk tissues [37]. Specific information relative to the health benefits of CLA and its biochemistry will be detailed later.

The important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acid (C18:two), blastoff-linolenic acrid (C18:3), described as the essential FAs, and the long-chain fat acids including arachidonic acid (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic acrid (C20:5), docosanpetaenoic acid (C22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:half dozen) [38]. The significance of diet on fatty acid composition is clearly demonstrated when profiles are examined past omega 6 (n-six) and omega 3 (north-3) families. Table 2 shows no significant change to the overall concentration of northward-six FAs between feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a higher concentrations of n-3 FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more favorable n-6:northward-3 ratio. In that location are a number of studies that report positive effects of improved n-3 intake on CVD and other health related bug discussed in more than detail in the side by side section.

Table ii

Comparing of hateful polyunsatured fat acid composition (expressed equally mg/g of fatty acid or as a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acid

Writer, publication year, breed, handling	C18:1 t11 Vaccenic Acid	C18:2 n-6 Linoleic	Total CLA	C18:three n-3 Linolenic	C20:5n-3 EPA	C22:5n-3 DPA	C22:6n-3 DHA	Total PUFA	Total MUFA	Full due north-6	Full n-three	n-6/north-iii ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	g/100 g lipid
Grass	i.35	12.55	v.xiv*	5.53*	two.xiii*	ii.56*	0.20*	28.99*	24.69*	17.97*	10.41*	1.77*
Grain	0.92	11.95	2.65*	0.48*	0.47*	0.91*	0.11*	19.06*	34.99*	17.08	one.97*	8.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	g/100 one thousand lipid
Grass	2.95*	2.01	0.85*	0.71*	0.31	0.24*	na	3.41	42.5*	2.30	1.07*	two.78*
Grain	0.51*	ii.38	0.48*	0.13*	0.19	0.06*	na	2.77	46.2*	2.58	0.xix*	13.six*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers	% of full FAs
Grass	three.22*	3.41	0.72*	1.30*	0.52*	0.70*	0.43*	7.95	37.7*	5.00*	2.95*	1.72*
Grain	2.25*	three.93	0.58*	0.74*	0.12*	0.xxx*	0.14*	nine.31	40.eight*	8.05*	0.86*	x.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 g musculus tissue
Grass	na	108.8*	fourteen.3	32.iv*	24.v*	36.5*	4.ii	na	930*	191.half-dozen	97.half dozen*	ane.96*
Grain	na	167.4*	16.1	14.9*	13.1*	31.vi*	3.vii	na	1729*	253.8	63.3*	3.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total fatty acids
Grass	na	6.56	0.87*	two.22*	0.94*	one.32*	0.17*	xiv.29*	56.09	9.lxxx	four.70*	2.04*
Grain	na	v.22	0.72*	0.46*	0.08*	0.29*	0.05*	ix.07*	55.51	7.73	0.90*	8.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers	% of full FAs
Grass	four.2*	5.4	na	1.4*	tr	0.6	tr	x.31*	34.17*	seven.iv	two.0	3.72*
Grain	2.8*	4.7	na	0.7*	tr	0.4	tr	vii.29*	37.83*	vi.iii	ane.1	five.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fatty acid within intramuscular fat
Grass	na	iii.29*	0.53*	ane.34*	0.69*	ane.04*	0.09	nine.96*	twoscore.96*	na	na	1.44*
Grain	na	2.84*	0.25*	0.35*	0.thirty*	0.56*	0.09	6.02*	46.36*	na	na	iii.00*

* Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens within each respective study reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original study. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-3: Omega-half-dozen fatty acid content in grass-fed beef

There are ii essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human being nutrition: α-linolenic acid (αLA), an omega-3 fat acid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acid. The human being body cannot synthesize essential fatty acids, still they are critical to homo health; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from food. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve equally precursors of other important compounds. For case, αLA is the precursor for the omega-three pathway. Also, LA is the parent fatty acid in the omega-vi pathway. Omega-3 (n-3) and omega-six (n-6) fatty acids are ii separate distinct families, still they are synthesized by some of the same enzymes; specifically, delta-v-desaturase and delta-6-desaturase. Excess of one family of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological furnishings [39]. Effigy 1 depicts a schematic of n-6 and n-three metabolism and elongation within the body [twoscore].

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Linoleic (C18:2n-6) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-3) Acid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A healthy diet should consist of roughly ane to 4 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-iii fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to incorporate 11 to xxx times more omega -6 fatty acids than omega -3, a phenomenon that has been hypothesized as a significant factor in the rise rate of inflammatory disorders in the U.s.[twoscore]. Table 2 shows pregnant differences in n-vi:n-3 ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness, with and overall average of one.53 and 7.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fatty acids used by the trunk include: α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-iii, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-three, EPA), docosapentaenoic acrid (C22:5n-three, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA). In one case eaten, the body converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, albeit at low efficiency. Studies generally concur that whole body conversion of αLA to DHA is below v% in humans, the majority of these long-concatenation FAs are consumed in the diet [41].

The omega-3 fatty acids were first discovered in the early 1970'southward when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an exceptionally low incidence of heart affliction and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a diet high in fat. These early studies established fish every bit a rich source of due north-three fat acids. More contempo research has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial part in the prevention of atherosclerosis, heart assault, low and cancer [xl,42]. In addition, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation caused past rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human brain has a high requirement for DHA; low DHA levels have been linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are continued to an increased trend for depression and suicide. Several studies take established a correlation between low levels of omega -three fatty acids and low. High consumption of omega-three FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of age-related memory loss and a lower take chances of developing Alzheimer's disease [45-51].

The National Institutes of Health has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, 2.22 1000/twenty-four hours of αLA and 4.44 g/day of LA. However, the Institute of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-6) at 12 to 17 g and αLA (omega-3) at 1.1 to one.vi g for adult women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of n-iii fatty acids, a recent fatty acid intake survey indicated that red meat also serves as a significant source of n-3 fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the first to bear witness that beefiness consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of n-3 fatty acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [40]. Also, there are a number of studies that take been conducted with livestock which report similar findings, i.e., animals that consume rations high in precursor lipids produce a meat production higher in the essential fatty acids [53,54]. For instance, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and besides produced a more favorable omega-6 to omega-3 ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Tabular array 2 shows the issue of ration on polyunsaturated fatty acrid composition from a number of recent studies that contrast grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,30,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-3 within the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged. In fact, as the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based diet, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear fashion. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a college concentration of n-3 FAs (without effecting due north-6 FA content), resulting in a more than favorable northward-6:n-3 ratio.

The amount of full lipid (fat) plant in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen as demonstrated in Tables 1 and 2. Fat will too vary by cutting, as not all locations of the carcass will eolith fat to the same degree. Genetics besides play a role in lipid metabolism creating meaning breed effects. However, the effect of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acid limerick.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acid (TVA) in grass-fed beefiness

Conjugated linoleic acids make upwardly a group of polyunsaturated FAs institute in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist as a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-ix, trans-eleven CLA isomer (besides referred to as rumenic acid or RA) accounts for up to lxxx-90% of the full CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from two sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fat acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,threescore].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA past an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven activity, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more than favorable rumen environs for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may aid to explain the apparent differences in CLA content betwixt grain and grass-finished meat products (come across Table 2). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:1 TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increase in CLA synthesis every bit the TVA content of the diet increased in human subjects [63]. The rate of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from 5 to 12% in rodents to 19 to 30% in humans[64]. True dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native ninec11t-C18:ii (actual CLA) likewise as the 11t-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Figure 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

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De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:ane vaccenic acid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9televen and TVA within the lipid fraction of beef products can exist achieved through diets rich in grass and lush dark-green forages. While precursors can be found in both grains and lush green forages, grass-fed ruminant species accept been shown to produce ii to three times more than CLA than ruminants fed in solitude on high grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (run across Tabular array 2).

The impact of feeding practices becomes even more axiomatic in calorie-free of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beefiness. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beefiness produced from a 73% barley grain nutrition is 10t-18:1 (2.13% of full lipid) rather than 11t-18:1 (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not particularly favorable considering the data that would support a negative impact of 10t-18:1 on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the past two decades numerous studies have shown significant health benefits attributable to the actions of CLA, as demonstrated by experimental animal models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [lxx-72]. Conjugated linoleic acid has also been reported to modulate trunk limerick past reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a multifariousness of species including mice, rats, pigs, and at present humans [73-76]. These changes in body limerick occur at ultra high doses of CLA, dosages that tin only be attained through synthetic supplementation that may also produce ill side-furnishings, such as gastrointestinal upset, agin changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver function [77-81]. A number of first-class reviews on CLA and human health tin be establish in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. It has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/day is plenty to evidence positive furnishings in the reduction of breast cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more conservative gauge stating that 3 g/day CLA is required to promote man health benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/day for men and 441 mg/day for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Obviously, all these values stand for crude estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated creature data. What is clear is that we as a population do non consume enough CLA in our diets to have a pregnant bear on on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports indicate that Americans swallow betwixt 150 to 200 mg/day, Germans consumer slightly more between 300 to 400 mg/day[87], and the Australians seem to exist closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to m mg/day according to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized past higher plants as natural institute pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for xanthous, orange and red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on high forage rations laissez passer a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and body fat in a fashion that has yet to be fully elucidated. Cattle produced nether extensive grass-based product systems generally have carcass fat which is more yellowish than their concentrate-fed counterparts caused by carotenoids from the lush light-green forages. Although yellowish carcass fatty is negatively regarded in many countries effectually the globe, it is also associated with a healthier fat acid contour and a higher antioxidant content [89].

Constitute species, harvest methods, and flavour, all accept pregnant impacts on the carotenoid content of provender. In the procedure of making silage, haylage or hay, as much as eighty% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [90]. Further, significant seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of plant growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a disquisitional fatty-soluble vitamin that is important for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, prison cell division, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the optics and likewise the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a bulwark to bacterial and viral infection [15,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune office by supporting the production and role of white blood cells [12,xiii].

The electric current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to 5,000 IU for men and 2,300 to iv,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Note: DRI as reported by the Plant of Medicine for not-pregnant/non-lactating adult females is 700 μg/solar day and males is 900 μg/day or two,300 - 3,000 I U (assuming conversion of 3.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Allowance) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Institute of Medicine suggests consuming 3 mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal function and a lowered risk of chronic diseases (NIH: Role of Dietary Supplements).

The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who found pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into muscle tissues as compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/g and 0.06 μg/g for beefiness from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increase in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beef over the grain-fed contemporaries. Similar information has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses every bit compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (encounter Table 3)

Table 3

Comparison of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	β-carotene

Author, year, brute course	Grass-fed (ug/g tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	0.74*	0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers	0.45*	0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	0.16*	0.01*

* Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective study.

Review of Vitamin Due east/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beef

Vitamin Eastward is also a fatty-soluble vitamin that exists in 8 different isoforms with powerful antioxidant activity, the virtually active being α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the concluding meat production than cattle fed high concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (see Table four).

Table 4

Comparison of hateful α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	α-tocopherol

Author, year, animal course	Grass-fed (ug/g tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle	4.07*	0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers	3.08*	ane.fifty*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	2.1*	0.8*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers	4.6*	2.2*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers	3.91*	two.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	iv.5*	i.8*

* Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each respective study.

Antioxidants such equally vitamin E protect cells against the effects of costless radicals. Gratuitous radicals are potentially dissentious past-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Preliminary inquiry shows vitamin East supplementation may help prevent or filibuster coronary heart disease [102-105]. Vitamin E may as well block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. It may too protect confronting the development of cancers by enhancing immune function [106]. In addition to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that found lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was better in patients who regularly used vitamin E [107,108]. The current recommended intake of vitamin E is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (synthetic source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to 15 milligrams past weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin E) found in grain-fed beefiness ranged between 0.75 to ii.92 μg/thou of muscle whereas pasture-fed beefiness ranges from 2.1 to 7.73 μg/g of tissue depending on the type of forage made available to the animals (Table iv). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels three-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beef well inside range of the musculus α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beef (iii to iv μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) acts post-mortem to filibuster oxidative deterioration of the meat; a process by which myoglobin is converted into chocolate-brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, brown appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness were directly compared, the bright red color associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail display in the grass-fed grouping, even thought the grass-fed meat contains a higher concentration of more oxidizable north-iii PUFA. The authors concluded that the antioxidants in grass probably acquired higher tissue levels of vitamin Eastward in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and better color retentivity despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beefiness

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new protein identified in foods. It is a tripeptide composed of cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine and functions every bit an antioxidant primarily every bit a component of the enzyme system containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the cell, GT has the adequacy of quenching free radicals (like hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and prevent damage to DNA. GT and its associated enzymes are found in near all plant and beast tissue and is readily captivated in the minor intestine[112].

Although our knowledge of GT content in foods is still somewhat limited, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very little GT (< 3.3 mg/100 g). In contrast, fresh vegetables (e.g., asparagus 28.three mg/100 1000) and freshly cooked meats, such as ham and beefiness (23.iii mg/100 m and 17.v mg/100 g, respectively), are high in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush green forages, grass-fed beef is especially high in GT equally compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a meaning increase in GT molar concentrations in grass-fed beef [114]. In addition, grass-fed samples were also higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (True cat) activity than beefiness from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together as powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and CAT then decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to H_iiO and O₂. Grass only diets improve the oxidative enzyme concentration in beef, protecting the muscle lipids against oxidation also as providing the beef consumer with an additional source of antioxidant compounds.

Issues related to flavor and palatability of grass-fed beefiness

Maintaining the more than favorable lipid contour in grass-fed beef requires a high percentage of lush fresh forage or grass in the ration. The higher the concentration of fresh green forages, the higher the αLA precursor that volition be bachelor for CLA and n-iii synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages accept ten to 12 times more than C18:iii than cereal grains [116]. Dried or cured forages, such as hay, volition have a slightly lower corporeality of precursor for CLA and north-3 synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains will cause a significant change in the FA contour and antioxidant content within 30 days of transition [57].

Because grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beef, smell and flavor will also exist affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the final product. In a study comparison the flavor compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beef independent higher concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll phone call phyt-1-ene and phyt-2-ene, that changed both the season and aroma of the cooked product [117]. Others have identified a "green" odor from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "green" aroma, grain-fed beef was described equally possessing a "soapy" odour, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is found in high concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beef consumers can expect a dissimilar season and aroma to their steaks as they cook on the grill. Likewise, because of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking time will be reduced. For an exhaustive look at the upshot of meat compounds on flavor, encounter Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beef has historically been less well accepted in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For example, in a written report where British lambs fed grass and Spanish lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed past British and Spanish taste panels, both found the British lamb to accept a higher olfactory property and flavor intensity. Yet, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish console much preferred the Spanish fed lamb [120]. Likewise, the U.S. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, taste panels and consumers who are more than familiar with the taste of corn-fed beef seem to prefer it besides [16]. An private commonly comes to prefer the foods they grew up eating, making consumer sensory panels more of an art than science [36]. Trained sense of taste panels, i.e., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beefiness less palatable than grain-fed beef in flavor and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Inquiry spanning three decades supports the argument that grass-fed beefiness (on a g/g fatty footing), has a more desirable SFA lipid profile (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) every bit compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is also college in full CLA (C18:ii) isomers, TVA (C18:1 t11) and n-iii FAs on a g/g fat ground. This results in a better n-6:n-3 ratio that is preferred by the nutritional community. Grass-fed beef is also higher in precursors for Vitamin A and Eastward and cancer fighting antioxidants such equally GT and SOD activity every bit compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beef tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fat consumption. Because of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beef also possesses a distinct grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. To maximize the favorable lipid profile and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should be finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may accomplish similar intakes of both northward-3 and CLA through consumption of higher fat portions with higher overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies accept shown that today'due south lean beefiness, regardless of feeding strategy, tin be used interchangeably with fish or skinless craven to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acrid; SFA: saturated fat acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fat acrid; MUFA: monounsaturated fat acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acrid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acrid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; True cat: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed most of the primary writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the articles according to category, completed some of the primary writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served every bit editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served equally editor for the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to admit Grace Berryhill for her assistance with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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